Theories of Personality

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Theories of Personality

Key points

  • The study of personality processes examines how personality is manifested in people’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors to result in consequential outcomes.1
  • Studying personality traits and patterns is of significant importance in adopting healthy behaviors.2 
  • Discussion on theories of personality covers ancient explanations of temperament to pseudoscientific typologies before reaching the current theories based on cognitive neurosciences.
  • Human personality is described from several perspectives. Explaining variability in human response to situations are basic understanding health and illness.3

Temperament Theory" of the four humors (fluids)

  • Hippocrates (BC 460 to BC 370) described the four temperaments as ‘humors’, equivalent to moods,  the four personality types were also evolved which were termed as sanguine (calm and collected and balanced), choleric (irritable), melancholic (depressed and inactive) and phlegmatic (lazy idle and not doing anything).4 Hippocrates distinguished lifestyle patterns and personal characteristics that predisposed to certain conditions.5

PhRenology & Enneagram

  • Phrenology was a semi-scientific explanation, introduced by Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828), to link personality traits with scalp morphology.5 Research has established that the shape of outer head has no relationship with personality and behaviour.6
  • Enneagram of Personality is a pseudoscientific typology of personality lists nine personality types called “enneatypes”. The personality assessment by enneagram has limited validity and reliability.7

Jean-Étienne Dominique Esquirol (1772-1840)/ James Cowles Prichard (1786-1848)/Emil Kraepelin

  • James Cowles Prichard (1786-1848) used the term ‘moral insanity for abnormal personality.8  Jean-Étienne Dominique Esquirol (1772-1840) introduced the concept monomanie raisonnante which was similar to the concept of moral Insanity by James Pichard.9
  • Kurt Schneider (1887-1967) described “psychopathic” personalities as the hyperthymic, depressive, insecure, fanatical, recognition-seeking, labile mood, explosive, emotionally-blunted, weak-willed, and asthenics.8
  • Emil Kraepelin in his 8th edition (1915) of textbook, he explained about seven types of abnormal personalities: (i) the excitable (possibly current term borderline personality disorder); (ii) the irresolute; (iii) persons following their instincts (drinkers and pleasure lovers); (iv) eccentrics (v) pathological liars and swindlers; (vi) enemies of society; and (vii) the quarrelsome.8

Trait Theory & Type Theory

  • • William Herbert Sheldon, Jr. (1898 –1977) introduced a system of body classification using anthropometric measurements and posture photographs to explain the three primary body build or somatotype: endomorphy (body roundness and softness), mesomorphy (body muscularity), and ectomorphy (thinness and linearity). Endomorphs tended to be lazy, social, and relaxed (viscerotonia), mesomorphs were typically vigorous and liable to aggressiveness (somatotonia), and ectomorphs were quiet and hypersensitive (cerebrotonia).10
  • Ernst Kretschmer (1888 –1964) classified four types of people: (1) the asthenic type who has a slender body (‘leptosome’) and is more prone to schizophrenia (SCZ); (2) the pyknic type who has a round body and is likely to become manic-depressive illness [bipolar disorder (BD)]; (3) the athletic type with a muscular body who may suffer from epilepsy; and (4) the dysplastic type who cannot be classified as any of the other three types.11
  • Allport's Trait Theory: Gordon Allport proposed that personality traits can be described at different levels, including cardinal, central, and secondary traits. Allport suggested that personality is always experienced in relation to certain situations, and not stable, fixed or invariable, rather situation-dependent.11 He also proposed that personality is inherently inconsistent and contradictory.13

Contemporary Theories

  • R.B.Cattel’s Trait Theory: Raymond Cattell used factor analysis to identify 16 personality factors.13 Raymond B. Cattell also developed the theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence.15
  • Whole Trait Theory (WTT) was developed as an integrative model of traits that incorporates mechanisms of differential reaction to situations. The WTT proposes that the explanatory side of traits consists of social-cognitive mechanisms.16,17
  • Eysenck’s Trait Theory proposed a theory of personality based on three dimensions: Extraversion, Neuroticism, and Psychoticism. He developed the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire.18
  • McCrae and Costa’s Big-five Factor Theory - McCrae and Costa believed that all human personality traits can be reduced to five factors only: Openness to experience, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism.19
  • Myers-Briggs Type Indicator pf personality is based on Carl Jung's personality theory. Four Dichotomies of Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) of personality are: Extraversion (E) vs. Introversion (I), Sensing (S) vs. Intuition (N), Thinking (T) vs. Feeling (F) and Judging (J) vs. Perceiving (P).20

Psychoanalytic Theory

  • Psychoanalytic Theory (Sigmund Freud)- This theory emphasizes the unconscious mind, early childhood experiences, and innate drives (e.g., sexual and aggressive impulses) in shaping personality. It also proposes the structure of personality as Id, Ego, and Superego.21
  • Harry Stack Sullivan explains personality as result of interpersonal interactions.22

Humanistic Theory

  • Humanistic Theory - Carl Rogers: Believed in the importance of unconditional positive regard and the role of the self in shaping personality. Rogers (1963a) described the fully functioning person as (1) open to all their experiences, they are sensitive to the world around them, other people's reactions, and their own internal feelings, reactions, and meanings; (2) living existentially, able to be fully present in the moment; and (3) able to trust their feelings and reactions to guide them in their actions.23
  • Abraham Maslow: Focused on the hierarchy of needs, where individuals strive to reach self-actualization. There are 5 needs in Maslow's motivational hierarchy (physiological, safety-security, belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization. According to Maslow, the underlying motivation in all humans is the satisfaction of the physiological needs that support homeostasis.24

Behaviorist Theory

  • This approach emphasizes the role of learning through conditioning (classical and operant) in shaping behavior and personality.25
  • John B. Watson: Founder of behaviorism, he believed that personality is primarily shaped by environmental experiences.26
  • B.F. Skinner: Developed the concept of operant conditioning, where behavior is learned through reinforcement and punishment.27
  • Ivan Pavlov: Introduced the classical conditioning theory of behaviour formation based on psychophysiological approaches.28
  • Social-Cognitive theory of Albert Bandura highlights the reciprocal interaction between individual thoughts, behaviors, and the environment. He proposed the concept of observational learning and self-efficacy, where individuals learn and develop personality through observation, modelling, and their beliefs in their own abilities.29

Other Theories

  • Biological perspective personality examines the role of genetics, brain structure, and neurotransmitters in shaping personality. It is established that biology contributes significantly to individual variability.30
  • Cloninger's tridimensional theory of personality attempts to bridge the gap between theoretical temperamental traits, neurotransmitter function and clinical psychiatry.31
  • Cognitive-biological theory of personality combines the fields of cognitive ethology, clinical psychology, and neuroscience, providing a future framework for personality research.32

References

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  2. Komasi S, Zakiei A, Ghasemi SR, Gilan NR, Veisi A, Bagherirad D, et al. Is enneagram personality system able to predict perceived risk of heart disease and readiness to lifestyle modification? Ann Card Anaesth. 2019;22(4):394–9.
  3. Ferguson E. Personality is of central concern to understand health: towards a theoretical model for health psychology. Health Psychol Rev. 2013 May;7(Suppl 1):S32–70.
  4. Goodacre CJ, Naylor WP. Evolution of the Temperament Theory and Mental Attitude in Complete Denture Prosthodontics: From Hippocrates to M.M. House. J Prosthodont Off J Am Coll Prosthodont. 2020 Aug;29(7):594–8.
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  7. Hook JN, Hall TW, Davis DE, Van Tongeren DR, Conner M. The Enneagram: A systematic review of the literature and directions for future research. J Clin Psychol. 2021 Apr;77(4):865–83.
  8. Crocq MA. Milestones in the history of personality disorders. Dialogues Clin Neurosci. 2013 Jun;15(2):147–53.
  9. Jones DW. Moral insanity and psychological disorder: the hybrid roots of psychiatry. Hist Psychiatry. 2017 Sep;28(3):263–79.
  10. Ramachandran A, Vertinsky P. William Sheldon, Aldous Huxley, and the Dartington connection: Body typing schemes offer a new path to a utopian future. Hist Hum Sci. 2024 Jul 1;37(3–4):130–54.
  11. Ikeda M, Tanaka S, Saito T, Ozaki N, Kamatani Y, Iwata N. Re-evaluating classical body type theories: genetic correlation between psychiatric disorders and body mass index. Psychol Med. 2018 Jul;48(10):1745–8.
  12. Toomela A. If Gordon Allport was right, the Likert-type personality scales must be very poor descriptors of personality: he was right. Front Psychol. 2025 Mar 13;16:1465742.
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  18. Scheibe VM, Brenner AM, de Souza GR, Menegol R, Almiro PA, da Rocha NS. The Eysenck Personality Questionnaire Revised – Abbreviated (EPQR-A): psychometric properties of the Brazilian Portuguese version. Trends Psychiatry Psychother. 2023 Feb 2;45:e20210342.
  19. Widiger TA, Crego C. The Five Factor Model of personality structure: an update. World Psychiatry. 2019 Oct;18(3):271–2.
  20. Zárate-Torres R, Correa JC. How good is the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator for predicting leadership-related behaviors? Front Psychol. 2023 Mar 2;14:940961.
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  22. Cortina M. Harry Stack Sullivan and Interpersonal Theory: A Flawed Genius. Psychiatry. 2020 Jan 2;83(1):103–9.
  23. Joseph S. How Humanistic Is Positive Psychology? Lessons in Positive Psychology From Carl Rogers’ Person-Centered Approach—It’s the Social Environment That Must Change. Front Psychol. 2021 Sep 28;12:709789.
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This page was last updated on: 27/05/2025